Judul ini saya ambil setelah membaca penelitian Antropologis yang dilakukan oleh Silverio R. L. Aji Sampurno dalam penelitiannya pada masyarakat bantaran kali Gajah Wong. Penelitian Sampurno dituangkan dalam Tesis pada tahun 2003 dengan judul 'Peran Wanita dalam Pengelolaan Limbah Rumah Tangga' dan juga Tesis Puji Lestari pada tahun yang sama dengan judul 'Peran Wanita dalam Pengelolaan Lingkungan Fisik Rumah Tinggal di Desa Donoharjo, Kecamatan Ngaglik, Kabupaten Sleman, Propinsi DIY'.
PUJI LESTARI
Puji Lestari menuliskan bahwa "Masyarakat Indonesia mempersepsikan lingkungan bukan hanya sekedar obyek yang harus digunakan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan manusia, melainkan juga harus dikelola, yaitu dengan ditata, dipelihara demi kelestarian lingkungan itu sendiri" (halaman 3).
Kembali kepada Wanita sebagai subyek pembahasan, ada 6 (enam) peran wanita dituliskan oleh Lestari pada halaman 26, yaitu:
(1) peran sebagai orang tua (parental-role)
(2) peran sebagai istri (conjugal-role)
(3) peran dalam rumah tangga (domestic-role)
(4) peran dalam kekerabatan (kin-role)
(5) peran pribadi (individual-role)
(6) peran dalam pekerjaan (occupation-role)
Definisi akan peran itu sendiri dituliskan sebagai "perilaku yang terpola" (halaman 27)
Disimpulkan oleh Lestari bahwa:
- wanita pekerja dan penjual jasa berperan sebagai decision maker dalam pemanfaatan WC
- wanita pedagang dan petani berperan sebagai pihak yang mengusulkan dan suami sebagai pihak yang
menyetujui dalam pemanfaatan WC
Tanpa ingin membatasi pemaparan temuan Lestari, dapat disimpulkan bahwa WANITA DALAM PERANNYA DALAM KAWASAN DOMESTIK MERUPAKAN DECISION MAKER.
AJI SAMPURNO
Aji Sampurno mengetengahkan betapa wanita berada dalam subordinasi laki - laki
- " ..., keutamaan seorang wanita adalah manak, macak, masak, mapak, dan manut".
- " wanita Jawa dianggap sebagai konco wingking (teman di belakang) atau wanita iku swargo nunut
neraka katut (wanita itu surga ikut neraka juga ikut)".
Posisi wanita ini juga ditarik dari pernyataan seorang ibu pada halaman 69
"kalau makan terserah pada yang akan makan, yang penting bapak(nya) sudah diambilkan terlebih dahulu, biar bapak(nya) tidak makan sisa makanan anak-anak dan istri(nya). Sebab yang mencari uang dan nafkah hidup itu bapak"
Fakta lain yang diketengahkan oleh Sampurno berada pada halaman 70 - 71
"Dalam kehidupan sehari-hari seringkali wanita rela mengganti namanya dengan nama suaminya setelah menikah. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa memang wanita berada dalam subordinasi laki-laki"
"Mempertahankan status quo (para laki-laki) ... dilestarikan oleh para elit pengambil keputusan di Dharma Wanita, Dharma Pertiwi, dan PKK sebgai gerakan wanita Indonesia. Para elit itu menjadi "elit", karena sudah menjadi tugas para wanita itu untuk juga mengepalai semua wanita (istri karyawan, bujangan), karena mereka adalah istri dari para lelaki yang menjabat kepala di tempat kerjanya"
Namun, Sampurno memberikan kontradiksi bahwa konco wingking bisa juga dimaknai sebagai pemberian wewenang penuh kepada wanita dalam hal pengaturan urusan domestik.
Saturday, August 4, 2012
Friday, August 3, 2012
Resiprositas antara Anak dan Orang Tua dalam keluarga Jawa - Penelitian Sukamtiningsih
Resiprositas antara Anak dan Orang Tua dalam keluarga Jawa merupakan tesis tulisan Sukamtiningsih pada tahun 2001 dan merupakan Studi Kasus di Desa Sriharjo, Yogyakarta
Berikut ini kesimpulan yang ditarik oleh penulis:
Halaman 141
" ... anak bagi orang tua dapat dijadikan sebagai tumpuan hidup nantinya di hari tua ... mempertahankan salah satu anaknya supaya dapat tetap tinggal dalam rumah (tabon) ... umumnya adalah anak yang dianggap dapat dijadikan tunpuan hidupnya"
usaha yang dilakukan orang tua tersebut:
(1) memberi tabon / tanah garapan atau ternaknya
(2) pemberian bantuan dari anak yang tinggal serumah berupa kebutuhan sehari-hari
(3) ikut terlibat meringankan pekerjaan dalam tumah tangga anak
(4) memberi bantuan keuangan untuk yang tidak terencana
Interesting Findings of Makmuri Sukarno's Thesis
The thesis written by Makmuri Sukarno was submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Demography Program, Division of Demography and Sociology, Research School of Social Science the Australian National University on May 1998.
The title of the thesis is 'The Transition from School to Work and Job-Seeking Behavior Among Youth in Three Cities of Java'. What he meant by three cities were Jakarta, Semarang and Surabaya.
The interesting findings are:
(1) "If parental education indicates the cultural resource of parents and parental occupation indicates economic resource of parents, this study confirms that the process of stratification in educational attainment in the area shows a stronger tendency to 'cultural reproduction' than to 'economic reproduction'. Cultural capital theory (Bourdieu and Passeron, 1997) emphasizes the rile of cultural capital as a socialization force which determines educational achievement" (p. 74)
(2) "Sex, age, marital status, and place of birth and ethnicity also have significant effects on the educational attainment of children. ... regardless of parental background, different social role expectations resulting from those factors have determined the demand and chance for children of different sex, marital status, place of birth and ethnic background to obtain education" (p. 75)
(3) "Young people who already have high educational qualification are more likely to have non-formal education than those who are less educated. So there is a tendency for a cumulative acquisition of human capital"
(4) "According to Blake (1989) - Judith Blake, Family Size and Achievement:
(a) the number of siblings within a family usually reflects the 'socio-economic status' and
orientation of the family. If parents prefer a big family, this implies that parents prefer quantity
to quality.
(b) the number of siblings reflects the distribution of supports which each child can receive and the
socialization process among siblings within the family.
(c) Sibling size has effects through birth order resource allocation.
Page 269
"Children of parents with high educational and occupational background, who were males, single, born in urban areas, and ethnically Javanese were most likely to obtain higher education, and thus benefited greatly from the provision of higher education"
PARENTS EDUCATION WAS THE MOST POWERFUL PREDICTOR OF CHILDREN'S EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT
The title of the thesis is 'The Transition from School to Work and Job-Seeking Behavior Among Youth in Three Cities of Java'. What he meant by three cities were Jakarta, Semarang and Surabaya.
The interesting findings are:
(1) "If parental education indicates the cultural resource of parents and parental occupation indicates economic resource of parents, this study confirms that the process of stratification in educational attainment in the area shows a stronger tendency to 'cultural reproduction' than to 'economic reproduction'. Cultural capital theory (Bourdieu and Passeron, 1997) emphasizes the rile of cultural capital as a socialization force which determines educational achievement" (p. 74)
(2) "Sex, age, marital status, and place of birth and ethnicity also have significant effects on the educational attainment of children. ... regardless of parental background, different social role expectations resulting from those factors have determined the demand and chance for children of different sex, marital status, place of birth and ethnic background to obtain education" (p. 75)
(3) "Young people who already have high educational qualification are more likely to have non-formal education than those who are less educated. So there is a tendency for a cumulative acquisition of human capital"
(4) "According to Blake (1989) - Judith Blake, Family Size and Achievement:
(a) the number of siblings within a family usually reflects the 'socio-economic status' and
orientation of the family. If parents prefer a big family, this implies that parents prefer quantity
to quality.
(b) the number of siblings reflects the distribution of supports which each child can receive and the
socialization process among siblings within the family.
(c) Sibling size has effects through birth order resource allocation.
Page 269
"Children of parents with high educational and occupational background, who were males, single, born in urban areas, and ethnically Javanese were most likely to obtain higher education, and thus benefited greatly from the provision of higher education"
PARENTS EDUCATION WAS THE MOST POWERFUL PREDICTOR OF CHILDREN'S EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT
What do youth and mom, both in urban and rural areas, spend (in terms of money and time) most on? - In Search for Theoretical Framework
When I was asked to do a literature research to find out what youth and mom, both in urban and rural areas, spend (in terms of money and time) most on; with value as the framework of all the findings, following is what I did on the first week.
DEFINITIONS
A. VALUE
1. The Indonesian Founding Father of Anthropology, Koentjaraningrat, explains that cultural value system is a series of abstract concepts that live in the minds of most of the citizens of a society, about what should be considered important and valuable in life. Thus a system of cultural values, that is usually a part of the culture that serves as a director and driving force of human behavior. Because the system of cultural values, it is only the abstract concepts, without formulating a clear, then the concepts that usually can only be felt, but often cannot be expressed explicitly by concerned citizens. (Koentjaraningrat, 1995: 387) (as written on http://fardly.wordpress.com/2011/04/15/rampak-bedug-international-youth-camp-2010/)
Cultural value system, which lives in the minds of most people of community and acts as the driving force of human behavior, is in the form of norms, laws, and regulations (Koentjaraningrat, 2010: 387-388).
2. Indonesian Structuralist, Heddy Shri Ahimsa-Putra, further clarifies that cultural value is an ideational aspect of a culture which further defined as world views, opinions held by people of a community or society to assess its good side and bad side, its usefulness of many elements in their life (2007: 6-7).
There are 3 (three) key words out of cultural value definitions by Koentjaraningrat and Ahimsa-Putra above, namely:
(1) It is in the mind of the people
(2) It is the people themselves who do the assessment
(3) It is in the form of norms, laws, and regulations
Thus, the definition of value, which in the end frames of all findings, is written on Graeber book called Toward an Anthropological Theory of Value – The False Coin of Our Own Dreams. He presented a definition of value in the economic sense: “The degree to which objects are desired, particularly, as measured by how much others are willing to give up to get them” (p. 1) or “… value simply the measure of individual desire … “ (p. 46) that then this value acts as the importance of actions (p. 49)
If it is simply the measure of the individual desire, what is the definition of desire then?
B. DESIRE
Desire was mentioned by D'Andrade in his writing on Human Motives and Cultural Models (D'Andrade and Strauss, 1992: 23) when he was explaining 'motivation'.
“Motivation is experienced as a desire or wish followed by a feeling of satisfaction if the desire is fulfilled or a sense of frustration if it is not.”
In brief, to find out about the value of youth and mom, as the subjects of this literature research, it is recommended by Graber (p. 257) to "extracting all the most fundamental questions of desire from society, so that it is possible to conceive of happiness largely as one's relations with objects (or at best, people are treats like objects)."
Definitions of value and desire have been presented and clearly I have presented to what's called cognitive Anthropology and cognitive Psychology as Kronenfeld, Bennardo and Munck clearly states that “Cognitive Anthropology and Cognitive Psychology: One builds on the other and the line between the two can be subtle” (2011: 1), which means "Emotion plays a role in cognition" (2011: 3).
D'Andrade, furthermore, strongly suggests to "investigate the types of experiences that lead people to feel (often without thinking much about it) that a certain course of action is their only reasonable alternative" (p. 13).
THUS
The definition of value suggested for this literature research refers to those of Graeber's in which definition of value is in the economic sense, that was learned from experiences, which produces motivations or goals in the decision making process (see further on decision making on A Companion to Cognitive Anthropology edited by Kronenfeld, Bennardo, and de Munck) that leads to actions. It Is strongly suggested to take note that motivation is closely related to emotion.
DEFINITIONS
A. VALUE
1. The Indonesian Founding Father of Anthropology, Koentjaraningrat, explains that cultural value system is a series of abstract concepts that live in the minds of most of the citizens of a society, about what should be considered important and valuable in life. Thus a system of cultural values, that is usually a part of the culture that serves as a director and driving force of human behavior. Because the system of cultural values, it is only the abstract concepts, without formulating a clear, then the concepts that usually can only be felt, but often cannot be expressed explicitly by concerned citizens. (Koentjaraningrat, 1995: 387) (as written on http://fardly.wordpress.com/2011/04/15/rampak-bedug-international-youth-camp-2010/)
Cultural value system, which lives in the minds of most people of community and acts as the driving force of human behavior, is in the form of norms, laws, and regulations (Koentjaraningrat, 2010: 387-388).
2. Indonesian Structuralist, Heddy Shri Ahimsa-Putra, further clarifies that cultural value is an ideational aspect of a culture which further defined as world views, opinions held by people of a community or society to assess its good side and bad side, its usefulness of many elements in their life (2007: 6-7).
There are 3 (three) key words out of cultural value definitions by Koentjaraningrat and Ahimsa-Putra above, namely:
(1) It is in the mind of the people
(2) It is the people themselves who do the assessment
(3) It is in the form of norms, laws, and regulations
Thus, the definition of value, which in the end frames of all findings, is written on Graeber book called Toward an Anthropological Theory of Value – The False Coin of Our Own Dreams. He presented a definition of value in the economic sense: “The degree to which objects are desired, particularly, as measured by how much others are willing to give up to get them” (p. 1) or “… value simply the measure of individual desire … “ (p. 46) that then this value acts as the importance of actions (p. 49)
If it is simply the measure of the individual desire, what is the definition of desire then?
B. DESIRE
Desire was mentioned by D'Andrade in his writing on Human Motives and Cultural Models (D'Andrade and Strauss, 1992: 23) when he was explaining 'motivation'.
“Motivation is experienced as a desire or wish followed by a feeling of satisfaction if the desire is fulfilled or a sense of frustration if it is not.”
In brief, to find out about the value of youth and mom, as the subjects of this literature research, it is recommended by Graber (p. 257) to "extracting all the most fundamental questions of desire from society, so that it is possible to conceive of happiness largely as one's relations with objects (or at best, people are treats like objects)."
Definitions of value and desire have been presented and clearly I have presented to what's called cognitive Anthropology and cognitive Psychology as Kronenfeld, Bennardo and Munck clearly states that “Cognitive Anthropology and Cognitive Psychology: One builds on the other and the line between the two can be subtle” (2011: 1), which means "Emotion plays a role in cognition" (2011: 3).
D'Andrade, furthermore, strongly suggests to "investigate the types of experiences that lead people to feel (often without thinking much about it) that a certain course of action is their only reasonable alternative" (p. 13).
THUS
The definition of value suggested for this literature research refers to those of Graeber's in which definition of value is in the economic sense, that was learned from experiences, which produces motivations or goals in the decision making process (see further on decision making on A Companion to Cognitive Anthropology edited by Kronenfeld, Bennardo, and de Munck) that leads to actions. It Is strongly suggested to take note that motivation is closely related to emotion.
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